Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics and the Ocean Floor
-We will spend a lot of time on this chapter.
-Please note that in class, we will combine information from this chapter with that of chapter 3.
-Carefully read the first section (2.1) about continental drift and Alfred Wegener. The Alfred Wegener story is an important example of the use of the scientific method.
-In carefully reading sections 2.1 and 2.2, understand how continental drift differs from plate tectonics and how and why the thinking evolved from continental drift to plate tectonics. As part of the evidence for plate tectonics, read carefully about "Sea Floor Spreading and Features of the Ocean Basins". Look carefully at the block diagrams that show processes occurring deep within the Earth.
-Understand the relationship between plate tectonics and earthquakes.
-Distinguishing between the terms "lithosphere" and "asthenosphere" will be important.
-Read carefully section 2.3, again looking carefully at the block diagrams that explain the processes occurring at plate boundaries. Table 2.1 will be very helpful. You'll be expected to identify and explain features at "convergent", "divergent", and "transform" plate boundaries.
-In section 2.4, continue reading carefully about hot spots and mantle plumes. Read about seamounts and coral reefs.
-In section 2.5, understand how earth scientists are able to make some of these predictions.
Chapter 3 Marine Provinces
-Should be read in conjunction with the last chapter.
-In section 3.1, understand the differences and relative advantages and disadvantages between soundings, echo soundings, multi-beam sonar, and satellite techniques.
-Read carefully section 3.3 on continental margins. Figure 3.8, and all of the terms on it should be in the instant recall section of your memory.
-Sections 3.4 and 3.5 should be read equally carefully.
Chapter 4 Marine Sediments
-The first half of this chapter is more important than the second half of this chapter. The first half of the chapter is the main text from p.93 to115.
-Table 4.1 is very important. Understand what the various columns in this table represent. The third column in this table refers to what we will sometimes call "depositional setting" in class. Understand completely the terms lithogenous (section 4.2), biogenous (section 4.3), and hydrogenous (section 4.4).
-There are several diagrams that I use quite a bit in class. Figures 4.11 and 4.12 nicely show the deposition of biogenous oozes.
-Figure 4.13 nicely shows the distribution of pelagic sediment.
-Figure 4.14 shows that calcareous ooze closely follows the distribution of mid-ocean ridges. Why might this be?
-Figures 4.18 and 4.19 are two more important diagrams that you should spend some time with.
-We'll learn a few of the hydrogenous sediments, but won't spend quite as much time on them.
-The story told in box 4.3 is a great example of why sediments are important.
Chapter 5 Water and Seawater
This is a pretty dense chapter that may require reading several times. But it forms the basis for much of what we'll cover in the rest of the class.
-Read in excruciating detail section 5.1. Know how atoms are constructed, what the water molecule looks like and why its geometry and polarity are important. Much of the magic of water is derived from the hydrogen bond; know what it is and why it causes cohesion, surface tension, and how it causes water to be the "universal solvent".
-After you get done with section 5.1, read it again.
-After reading section 5.1 twice, get started on section 5.2 and read it carefully as well.
-Be able to explain the difference between heat and temperature, and these terms' relationship to "heat capacity". Heat capacity is one of those concepts, like density, that will stay with us for a long time this semester. If you don't get it now, it will come back to haunt you.
-Figures 5.5 and 5.8 are very important.
-Know what is happening at a molecular level at waters freezing and boiling points, and about the associated latent heat of melting, vaporization, evaporation, condensation, and freezing. These latent heats are a very important method of transferring heat energy on our planet.
-Finally, at the end of section 5.2 is a section on water density. I think I've already talked about density enough for you to know how important that is.
-In section 5.3, you can decrease the intensity of your reading ever so slightly.
-Ingrain in your minds Table 5.1, especially the major constituents, the gasses, and the nutrients. There is not much need to learn the others or trace constituents.
-Section 5.4 is about variation of salinity in surface waters. Table 5.3 show many of the factors that change salinity. Interestingly, few of them change the salt content, but rather influence the water more strongly.
-Section 5.5 is about the acidity of seawater. This is a huge issue now because ocean scientists think that ocean acidity is increasing due to climate change. The increased acidity has important implications for coral reefs because they're made out of Calcium Carbonate.
-Read about the carbonate buffering system.
-Sections 5.6 and 5.7 are equally important. They deal with variation of salinity, temperature, and density with depth in the oceans. Definitely know what a halocline, thermocline, and pycnocline are.
Perhaps thankfully, we will not deal with Section 5.8 much at all in class.
-Yes, this is a very dense, but very important chapter.
Chapter 6 Air-Sea Interaction
From your reading of Section 6.2, you should be able to explain why the equatorial regions are warmer than the polar regions.
Section 6.3 is sort of a “foundations” section. Understand this section and the rest of the chapter will come more easily. The section called “Temperature Variation in the Atmosphere” explains an important concept of how the atmosphere is actually heated from below, i.e., from the Earth. The section refers the reader to Chapter 16 for more information. I suggest you read page 476 in Chapter 16, paying special attention to figures 16.7 and 16.8.
Section 6.3 describes several different properties of the air, or atmosphere: its temperature, density, water vapor content (or humidity), and its pressure. Each of these properties affects the atmosphere in a different way. Be sure to read each of these sections to get an introduction to how each of these properties affects the atmosphere. The section on “Atmospheric Pressure” is especially important.
The point of all these concepts is that we want to understand how the atmosphere moves and creates winds. The end of Section 6.3 makes this transition. Differences in pressure make the air move. Figure 6.8 is an important one that I’ve used on tests in the past. Why does the air move in these directions on a non-spinning Earth.
Section 6.4 is about the Coriolis Effect. The rotation of the Earth causes the Coriolis Effect. Emblaze into your memories the first three sentences of the second paragraph of this section. The rest of the section explains why this effect occurs. Read this section once, and then go back and memorize that second paragraph.
Section 6.5 takes the previous sections and puts them together to try and explain atmospheric circulation on a rotating Earth. Figure 6.11 summarizes these concepts. You should be able to define and explain each and every word, arrow, and symbol on Figure 6.11. The text of this section will help you do this. Table 6.2 summarizes the information in table format.
There are some very important points in the last portion of Section 6.5, entitled “Circulation Cells: Idealized or Real?” In this portion, read about how the distribution of continents and oceans, especially in the northern hemisphere, strongly affect the location of high and low pressure systems.
The first half of Section 6.6 is most important. Read about the difference between weather an climate. Climate is what you expect when you plan a trip to a place; the weather is what you actually get. Which way does the wind blow? Find out in the second portion of Section 6.6. Land and sea breezes are very important to us here in the Monterey area. I like figures 6.13, 6.14, and 6.15. We’ll learn a bit about Hurricanes, but won’t get way into them.
Section 6.7 is about the difference between sea ice and icebergs. Understand the difference. This section seems oddly placed in this chapter. Skim this and the last section; we won’t get into wind power too much. I hope you enjoyed Chapter 6.
Chapter 7 Ocean Circulation
Section 7.2 organizes the surface currents and explains their origins. Start reading carefully here. Be able to identify and describe the currents in the Ocean’s five major subtropical gyres. Be able to explain the origin of these currents. Look carefully at Figure 7.4. Be able to identify and describe the following currents: Equatorial, Kuroshio, California, Gulf Stream, Canary, and the Peru.
Continuing in Section 7.2, be able to identify and explain the origin of equatorial currents, western boundary currents, and eastern boundary currents. Each of these currents have specific characteristics that influence the world oceans. Eckman Transport and the Eckman Spiral, described on page 201 and on figures 7.6 and 7.7, are important phenomena that greatly influence the ocean off of the California coast. Continue reading carefully in this section on pages 202 and 203 about geostrophic currents and the western intensification of subtropical gyres. Spend some time understanding Figure 7.8. Finally, read about how surface ocean currents influence climate on page 204.
Section 7.3 talks about upwelling and downwelling, processes that we know are important along the CA coast. All of the causes explained in the text and shown on Figures 7.10 to 7.13 are important and should be high in your consciousness.
Section 7.4 talks about circulation patterns in each of the Earth’s oceans. Skim the entire section, but pay particular attention to the Gulf Stream on page 209-210 and the climatic effects on page 212. Switch from skimming to close attention on page 215, where the discussion of the Pacific Ocean starts. This portion of section 7.4, on pages 215 to 222, is where El Nino is discussed.
The El Nino – Southern Oscillation (ENSO) dominates any conversation about the Pacific. Pay close attention to figure 721 and the text that describes it. Key terms include “Walker Circulation”, the Peru Current, and the pacific Warm Pool. Know the difference between the ENSO Warm Phase (El Nino conditions) and the ENSO cool phase (La Nina conditions). Look carefully at Figures 7.22, 7.23, and 7.25. Be absolutely certain you understand that these figures are showing information about sea surface temperature anomalies. Be sure you understand what an anomaly is and how it is being used in this context.
Section 7.5 is about deep water currents, or “thermohaline circulation.” Figure 7.26 shows how temperature and salinity variations can cause the density differences that drives thermohaline circulation. On pages 224-225, concentrate on the reasons why certain water masses become dense enough to sink, rather than on the specific names of the various water masses. Figure 7.28 is a very famous diagram that tries to link surface- and deep-water circulation. This diagram is a general overview, and does not even attempt to show specific currents, or all of the currents. Nevertheless, it is a well-known diagram that shows up wherever ocean water circulation is discussed.
Finally, the section on “Dissolved Oxygen in Deep Water” on page 226 is a short gem that shows why the interconnection between surface- and deep-water circulation is so important for life in the oceans.
Chapter 8 Waves and Water Dynamics
As you read this
section, be thinking about differences between waves and currents. Both are
descriptions of water movement, but how are they similar and how do they differ?
Read sections 8.1
and 8.2
Carefully read
section 8.3, paying particular attention to figures 8.4, 8.5, and 8.7. Pay
attention to the bolded vocabulary terms in this section. Don’t worry so much
about the equations for wave speed.
Carefully read
section 8.4, again paying special attention to the figures and tables. Look at
the interesting relationships between wavelength, period, and amplitude in Table
8.2.
How do rogue waves
form and why are they so destructive?
Carefully read
section 8.5 to find out how and why waves “break”. Wave refraction and
reflection are important concepts.
Carefully read the
first parts of section 8.6 about tsunamis, up to and including the section on
“Coastal Effects”. The rest of this section is interesting reading about
examples of recent tsunamis. Why were tsunamis originally called “tidal waves”?
What’s wrong with this terminology?
We will not cover
section 8.7 about wave energy.
Chapter 9 Tides
Tides are a mind bender. We’ll try to understand some of the forces that produce them, but we won’t try to understand their every detail.
Carefully read section 9.1. Read it a few times, concentrating on figures 9.1 to 9.9. The concept of the “barycenter” is one of the keys to the whole thing. Be sure you know what this term means. Also concentrate on the differences between the various forces: centripetal, gravitational, and resultant. At the end of all this, the real test is whether or not you can explain why there are usually two high tides and two low tides per day.
Carefully read the first part of section 9.2, learning the vocabulary words that are illustrated on figure 9.10.
Carefully read the part called “Idealized Tide Prediction”, that is illustrated in figure 9.14.
Understand the main point of section 9.3, which is the “Effect of the Continents”.
Skim sections 9.4 and 9.5.
Chapter 10 Coasts
The driving questions here are: Why does the coast look the way it does? What causes the differences in the coastal regions look? Please note that I didn't say "beach" here. That's because the word "beach" implies sand, which not all coastlines have. Can you think of a section of coast around here that doesn't really have long beaches?
Section 10.1 is devoted to introductory terminology. The terms you'll use most often in this class are "beach", "Wave-cut bench" (same as "wave-cut platform"), "wave-cut cliff" (same as "seacliff"), and "longshore bars" (same as "sandbars", or just "bars"). The section called "Beach Composition" contains important information. Read it.
Section 10.2 talks about sand movement both perpendicular and parallel to the shoreline. Both will be important to us, so read this whole section carefully. For perpendicular movement, pay special attention to the differences between a summertime beach and a wintertime beach. Figure 10.2 is very nice. For parallel movement, be sure to understand what the term "longshore" means in all its connotations. Be sure to know what causes it and why beaches are sometimes referred to as a "river of sand".
Section 10.3 recognizes that sand does not occur along all sections of coast and begins to describe some of these differences. Concentrate on the difference between an "erosional shore" and a "depositional shore" and know the main features that characterize them. All of the bold vocabulary words in the Erosional Shores section are important. We will see, and you will be asked to identify almost all of these features. Rip currents are common in this area. It might be good to know about them. Learn and be able to identify the bold vocabulary words in the Depositional Shores section as well. We'll be able to see examples of many of these features too. So is the coastline in the Monterey area erosional or depositional? One of our lab exercises may involve the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, so read this special section. Beach compartments are an idea that may have had it origin in the southern California region shown in fig 10.12. You will also see and hear these called "littoral cells". Fig 10.12 is an important conceptual diagram for interpreting beach dynamics.
Section 10.4 shifts the approach to "emerging" and "submerging" shorelines. Whether the land is rising or falling relative to sea level can have an affect on what the coastal area looks like. Read the section on why the sea level changes and be familiar with the main reasons: tectonic, isostatic, eustatic, ice ages, etc...
Section 10.5 talks about the characteristics of US coasts. Be careful with figure 10.15. You have to look very carefully to distinguish between the various types of coastal bedrock. I'm not so sure I like this figure very much.
Sections 10.6 and 10.7 are really about preserving an incredibly valuable natural resource: the beaches. There is quite a bit of interest in this in the Monterey area and I'm sure all of the alternatives mentioned in this section have been either considered or implemented, or may be in the future. All of the words in bold are important to know about.
Chapter 11 : The Coastal Ocean
The material in chapter 11 will enter our discussion at various points in the semester. We will not discuss the material in Chapter 11 in order from start to finish.
Skim section 11.1; we will not cover this in detail
Read section 11.2, but remember they're talking about coastal oceans, not deep oceans. They're not the same.
In section 11.3, read more carefully about estuaries. Elkhorn Slough and San Francisco Bay are world-class estuaries. We may do a lab about mixing in estuaries, for which the section on water mixing in estuaries will be very important. in a similar manner, the Mediterranean Sea will play an important role in one of our labs; read the case study on the Mediterranean Sea.
We will cover the material in sections 11.4 to 11.6 in a pollution module associated with our visit to the Monterey Bay Aquarium. The value of coastal wetlands, the kinds of pollution, non-point source and point source pollution, and invasive species in this section of the class.